Sampling Methods

As a teacher designer of an action research study, your classroom defines your sample.  This is generally referred to as non-probability sampling, where participants are selected based on naturally occurring groups. Convenience sampling, accidental sampling or opportunity sampling are all terms that may be used alongside action research.  These terms essentially refer to the idea of using a sample that is convenient to the team of researchers, such as a classroom or a school. (Jupp, 2006)

This sampling technique has disadvantages. "Although some would argue that all social research is inherently subjective and based on the politics and values of researchers and institutions, the positivist perspective maintains that social research and the methods it employs should strive to be value-free and objective. From this positivist perspective opportunity sampling is weak on external validity as it is impossible to generalize from the data it produces because it is not representative of the social world in general" (Jupp, 2006,n.p.).  Specifically for teachers, it is important to consider that the results of an action research study in one school may not be representative of the behaviour of all students due to environmental, cultural, or socio-economic factors. As such, the teacher researcher must clearly make the reader aware of the sampling techniques used so that the limitations and validity of the research conclusions are fully understood (Jupp, 2006).

Sampling and Ethics

In a school setting, the school professional (teacher, librarian, principal, counsellor, or the like) is acting not only as the researcher but also as the change agent (Hammack, 1997). These potentially conflicting roles can confound the individual's primary objective in the classroom or school: student learning. Examining organizational behavior in industry, Mirvis and Seashore (1982) noted that most ethical dilemmas in such studies arise "not because roles are unclear, but because they are clearly in conflict" (p. 87). (Nolen & Vander Putten, 2007, p.402)

As Nolen and Vander Putten (2007) further explain, such an obligation takes on additional and complex meanings when considered in the context of students as a protected research group in a K-12 classroom. These minors are asked to decide whether to participate in research being conducted by their teachers or other school professionals. In addition to being unable to formally consent to research study participation, minors are unlikely to possess the maturity or independence necessary to decline participation in studies conducted by researchers on whom they are dependent for their grades, access to resources, and enriching experiences while in school. 

Another issue to consider is the freedom of the student to choose whether to participate in research that is part of the normal schooling process. If the research is not clearly defined apart from what the student would ordinarily be required to do in the classroom, then the student will have difficulty making an informed decision and freely choosing (or choosing not) to participate. (Nolen & Vander Putten, 2007, p.402)

A third application of the foundational principle of respect for persons involves the intertwined issues of the teacher researcher's prior relationships with the participants and, more important, the participants' perceptions of the voluntary nature of participation in the research study. (Nolen & Vander Putten, 2007, p.403)

Nolen and Vander Putten offer advice for the teacher researcher. Establish a relationship between the researcher and participants that is as democratic as possible. In doing so, the participants become part of the decision-making process in all phases of the action research. Consequently, the participants can comment on the findings and, together with the researcher, develop more effective models of schooling (p.405).  Additionally, these authors suggest that school professionals who plan to conduct action research involving human participants successfully complete a formal training program in research ethics before beginning the project. (Nolen & Vander Putten, 2007, p.405).